Important Sex Linked Disorder That Affects Humans Assignment

Important Sex Linked Disorder That Affects Humans - Assignment Example Crossing a female with the disease with a male that doesn’t have it will result in all male offspring having the disease and all females being carriers. Finally, crossing a female and a male both that have the disease will result in all offspring having it. Many genetic disorders are inherited recessively. As such the child must have two copies of the allele for it to show phenotypically. One such disorder is cystic fibrosis. This condition results in the excess build up of mucus in many organs including the lungs and liver, as well as increased susceptibility to developing infections. Without treatment, the disease often results in death at early childhood. A cross between a female carrier (Cc) and a male with the disease (CC) would result in 50% of the offspring having the disease, and the other 50% being carriers. A cross between two carriers (Cc) would result in a quarter of the offspring having the disease, half being carriers and the final quarter not inheriting the alle le. Lastly, a cross between two individuals with the disease would result in all of the offspring having the disease. ... Thus, a cross between two carriers (heterozygotes) would result in three-quarters of the offspring having the disease and one not. A cross between a female that did not have the disease and a male carrier (heterozygote) would result in half of the offspring having the disease and the other half not. Finally, a cross between two individuals with the disease depends on the genotypes of each. If both have only one copy of the disease allele, the one-quarterer of their offspring will not have the disease. However, if even one of them is homozygous, then all offspring will have the disease.

Conflict Management - Intrapersonal, Intergroup and Interpersonal Research Paper

Conflict Management - Intrapersonal, Intergroup and Interpersonal Types of Conflicts - Research Paper Example Organizations undergo changes due to new technological, political and social developments that affect them or due to changes in the competitive force. As people may hold a different view about the change and the future direction of an organization, conflicts may arise (Mullins). Personality Clashes: Individuals' personalities differ widely due to differences in their levels of maturity, emotional stability and their behaviour. When they do not recognize or appreciate these differences, conflicts occur. Differences in the value set: Different people have different opinions, values and beliefs. When people with contradicting values and beliefs interact with each other, conflicts are likely to occur. These conflicts are often irrational and difficult to be resolved (Newstorm). Threats to status: Most individuals associate their identity with their status in society or organizations. When an individual feels that another person's acts may harm or damage his image, which in turn may affect his status, conflict is likely to arise. Differences in Perceptions: People perceive different things, issues and their environment differently. When they act as though their perception is the only reality, without attempting to understand or accept another person's view, conflicts arise (Newstorm). Conflicts are common in all organizations and occur when people fail to arrive at a consensus regarding the organizational goals or the means to achieve them (Falletta). Organizational conflicts can be classified as follows: According to most behavioural theories, people are motivated to achieve a goal either when meeting the goal results in the satisfaction of a need, or when the incentives for achieving the goal are attractive. However, this is not as simple as it seems.

Debate Between The Epicureans And The Stoics Term Paper

Debate Between The Epicureans And The Stoics - Term Paper Example The Epicureans were contributed by Epicurus who was a Greek philosopher who lived between 341 BC and 270 BC. Epicurus founded the Garden in Athens in which he and his followers lived and practiced Epicurus’ philosophical ways of life. At the entrance of this place, they hanged a writing stating that Stranger, here you will do well to tarry. Here our highest good is pleasure’1. From this writing among others, the Epicureans are considered hedonists who believe that humanity should fulfill their earthly desires and pleasures and should never try or live according to the will of God in the same way as the Stoics. In other words, they note that humanity should try to live in some sort of happiness and pleasure while they are still on earth or before their death. Notably, the contribution attributed to these two schools of thoughts can be narrowed down to the Aristotelian school of thought that dictates that "the sort of person one is and the lifestyle one adopts will indeed have an immediate bearing on the actions one performs." Nonetheless, the Stoic is more plausible than the Epicureans school of thought. The Epicurean school of thought is divided into two axial lines of desires including natural and unnatural fulfillments. Some of these fulfillments may be considered necessary in life while others are considered unnecessary. Form these distinctions; it is apparent only some of the natural and necessary desires can be fulfilled while the other branch of categories, the unnatural and unnecessary desires are irrelevant and cannot be fulfilled. Nearly all the unnatural and unnecessary class of desires prescribed by Epicureans never exists. This is because only what natural desires are truly necessary and they are what exist. In other words, even the natural and unnecessary desires are never vital to the human life; thus, they must be considered void since they never satisfy human needs but they can only lead to confusion and disturbance of inner self s ufficient or the autarkeia2. Notably, from this classification of desires, it is apparent that their something or desires that are never necessary in human life and living them as means of self-fulfillment will only lead to destabilization of an individual’s inner self sufficiency. These two schools of thoughts also address their concerns on pleasure. Epicureanism classifies sexual intercourse as natural but unnecessary desire. In this case, Epicurus does not spell out total abstinence from sexual pleasures, but he thinks that such pleasure should be sampled carefully so that they are not confused with natural and necessary human desires. Epicurus once stated "Sexual intercourse never helped anyone, and one must be satisfied if it has not harmed3." In other words, he was noting that natural but unnecessary desires should be enjoyed while balancing such acts carefully in clear thinking minds. According Epicurus, for an individual â€Å"To enjoy these unnecessary desires and t o not make of them necessities, to take free pleasure in the unnecessary, this is the highest achievement4." However, this contribution varies Stoics that states that former believes makes make a person more virtuous that they can easily and effective sample natural and unnecessary without them being overwhelmed by these choices. In other words, Stoics contributes the fact that all human desires are governed by some natural forces that humanity must be answerable to; thus, it worth examining and individuals’ experience in order to define his or her next move. Additionally, Stoics argue that pleasure may lead threaten an individual tranquility; thus, it should be avoided at all costs. Additionally, other than pleasure, these two schools o

Meeting Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Meeting - Essay Example As the first order of business under delegations/recognition the Spotlight on Excellence was awarded to a Pre-AP English teacher and Coach at Alamo Heights High School. Secondly, Alamo Heights Public Relations Awards were highlighted. Specifically, the Alamo Heights School Foundation and District Communication Office had received three state awards from the Texas School Relations Association. The specifics of those awards were discussed. Individual students’ achievement in state academic and sport competitions were recognized. Alamo Heights High School Student Council was also recognized for achieving the 2011 National Gold Council of Excellence Award from the National Association of Student Councils. The meeting then turned to possible items for action. A new format for elementary report cards were presented and the meeting informed that the new designs will be introduced in Fall 2011. No details were provided. Similarly, a strategic plan update was recorded in the meetings w ith scant information. The only information recorded was that the an update was provided concerning the plans for the â€Å"multiple lines of district communication† (Board Briefs, 2011). Other presentations were recorded similarly. For instance a revised dual language program and lottery procedures were presented without the benefit of any other details.

How to Improve Our Government Essay Example for Free

How to Improve Our Government Essay People every day make mistakes, and find flaws in their everyday tasks. No one person in this country can consider his, or herself, perfect. Knowledgeable people do exist in this world though, and our government strives to find and elect these representatives. These representatives then make decisions that affect our country in ways some might find positive, though others perceive as negative. Representatives could make decisions that would only impact our government in a negative way. Our government has its flaws, along with the people running it. I can think of several ways to help to improve the government and its efficiency. A decrease in government funding for our National Defense would increase funding in other important areas. People across our nation need jobs, and are struggling to find a source of income. If we used some of the funding that we attribute to our Nation Defense, then this money might benefit in the use of creating new jobs and opportunities for people. Not only would we have money to provide jobs, but this funding could be used to help create and search for new information in the field of Cancer Research. The government funds provide people that lack occupations and have no source of income, with a reliable way of obtaining money for themselves to provide for his or her, and/or his or her family. These welfare recipients may draw unemployment after applying and meeting the requirements need to obtain this welfare money. These requirements may not be strict enough, which would lead to the allowance of the unemployed to gather money while being lazy in the process. Due to the lack of work ethic found in people, drug use may attribute to this laziness. A requirement may need to be added in order for the recipients to pass a drug test (a test for multiple drugs) in order to draw unemployment, in return saving the wasted money the government provides to the unworthy. The government could invest much of their funding in renewable energy sources. The post installation outcome of these windmills, energy providing dams, etc. would help save money later on in the future. With these funds being provided to help â€Å"Go Green†, the earth itself would take a drastic increase in cleanliness. The government then might avoid conflicts  with foreign nations in the search for the fossil fuels, of which we currently use as energy. Doing this might then allow us to pull our troops out of these foreign nations, saving lives and money provided for the troops. The government has a reliable system that has gotten our country out of some troubled times, and may be one of the most united governments the world has seen. As previously stated though, nothing and no single person is perfect. With these little changes in the way the government goes about, it may impact funding, our unity, and occupations for the people of the United States, allowing people to live and prosper, with freedom and peace throughout.

Automation in IT Industry: Uses and Benefits

Automation in IT Industry: Uses and Benefits Automate IT processes Abstract Here is the procedure to analyzing the errors or bugs related to the Project in the IT industry using the automation tools. From this analysis we are able to find the processes of errors caused due to soundness or for syntactical errors Due to this errors the organization is non profitable or losing its profit sales it also lead to downfall of the shareholder values What are the reasons for IT process Automation? This Analysis is very important to the each and every organization to discuss within the company in all aspects of benefits that are achieved through the Automation, key value characteristics should be considered throughout the workflow of automation, and it should be challenged experience to the automation process Overview Now a days IT industry is more Complex than before. Cumulating the number of Apps, Servers , composite scope of Systems, and huge Records: all of this need to be maintained And managed , which is very big difficult task for IT industry in all the aspects like money, manpower.etc.. So Organizations of different Size is looking for an alternative Source which is related to maintain it with more efficiently. In almost all Societies records could be preserved trustworthy and safely. This are all leads to the customized applications As the size of the data increase it implies to the increase on organization administration software and computerization to preserve a reliability in the IT organization with additional professionally to influence on Manpower and increase awareness and retaining of the problematic finish. Monitoring, Ticketing, and change and configuration management are some of the categories for system management product Introduction Why Automation It is used to Save time and manpower it is used to increase efficiency Decrease Mean Time to Repair and increase Mean Biome Between failures man can make a mistake but machine cannot All size of Organizations (Small and Big) are processing there work flow through Automation. It is the best Suitable techniques to increase the Business in all the fields For every Societies a special team of members is organized to maintain the Automation Process This shows the Automation in IT Industry The above scenario shows the infrastructure of IT industry necessary steps to be take part in the growth of Organization Aim To deliver a systematic management solution to the client to procedure with the smooth workflow of an Application Intentions 1. Systematizing the remediation of events and warnings Many of the IT industry have Adopted the advanced technology to have a keen observation on the performance of their growing in IT infrastructures compare to the Other orginisation.There will be a quick alert is produced when any incidents occurred to the infrastructure. When such incidents happened there will automatic solution then and there itself. In IT Automation process, you can automate the remediation of many incidents occurred through: self-initiated, automatic work flow can be done from monitoring tools or manual operator automatic workflow execution through the data center is more faster than the manual process Automatic remediation, like complex servers and infrastructures can be balanced through network load With this system IT infrastructures is secure and safe 2. Authorizing forefront IT professionals to determine additional events Research have been declared that in many of the organizations half of the incident occurred in the infrastructure are estimated beyond the frontline to the notice of the network administrators and management. This incident result to the less productivity and a conference calls to resolve this issue in the personal time as nights, and weekends It Automation process is used to help in transformation of manual big data effect in to sequence and standardized workflows. When an incident happened the workflow automatically imitated compile and execute to the better efficiency. A trigger is automatically starts when the estimated cross the frontline to the knowledge of level 3 administrator 3. Reducing alert abundances There is more chance of Alert happens when IT systems staff concentrate with the alert. They are more active in the alert due to lack the data to know which alert is more active and which is more and just noise. Even a little sound of alert makes the IT staff to be more productive and focus on the critical issue to reduce the noise. Like this IT process automatic initiated to monitor and ticketing product and reaches the frontline operator to take quick action on the alert. The following are the examples for the automation alert in management process: à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ·Monitoring tool to identify the incident and make a trigger. à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ · To make the workflow automatically when the trigger and take the appropriate action from the noise alert and create the ticket for the necessary action. Using the trigger frontline operator produce a ticket to resolve the action in this scenario work load is decreased by using this technology. 4. Create a reliable, repeatable procedure for coordinating modification Now a days IT Organizations is supporting large number of applications, servers and devices, as this number can rapidly grow. Among this some of the Organizations have a well format of documentation and consistently change in the process and some does not have a will documentation, and also produce without updating and changes of the previous due to the three will be consistently raise of issue which feel very difficult for frontline operators to resolve and reactive on the productive issue. For the above aspect IT process automation gives the significant and automatic changes in the configuration management process. The set of automation process is imitated by the IT system administrator to check the workflow of application and servers for the status and trigger, network and automation process for updating. This changes is updated to the thousands of application through the servers, create a document according to the requirements. It process tool is used to improve the overall cost efficiency for configuration management previously manual uses automation process for end-to-end changes in the system management product. This lead to the compact and responsiveness. Observing the previous action in the IT automation helps you to react more efficiently for changes in the business needs it also reduce the time of deployment of new infrastructure? An Organization can see a 70 percent of reduction for the new infrastructure 5. Develop relations between ITIL event administration and difficult management procedure It operators goes to a fire-fighting mode due to continuous receiving and resolving hundreds and thousands of alerts a day. They have to react as quickly as possible to the incident and respond to that alert to maintain critical application uptime. However ticket is not generated as soon as the relevant troubleshooting and resolving the alert. IT automation process can be linked to the incident management to the more effective problem management.IT automation let you to quickly react to the alert and trigger according to the action. For example software application can be checked by checking the server status, network status, application build status, and then database status and relocate to the cogent page for the slow productivity and alert, the record is noticed and repaired. If it is necessary the automation process is restarted for triggering. the data is redirected to the server due to insufficient of memory in the server or application issues. Perform data analysis for the input and output. 6. Capture instance determination review paths and generate procedure documentation It automation process create automatically a value according to the automation alert and incident resolving, due to this there will an increase in uptime and let them to focus on the strategic issues. It automation process also capture each and every information automatically for each step of flow. This information is secure and store in the database for the automation product. Automation process automatically create documentation from the automation flow. Each and every flow of step is described in the new created documentation from the created flow. As a result automation documentation is referred to save the time instead of manual document. In this document each and every step is clearly mentioned from alert triggered to the resolution 7. Incorporate role-based contact mechanism into our event determination procedure Many of the IT industry more struggle for exchange of information between2-3 level support. This exchange of information occurred in the middle of night without observing the capabilities of the current state of system If this is properly implemented, the following features in observed automatically: Role-based access control Capture of input and output data Role based access control is used to capture input, output data.so that automation workflow is done automatically as it is atomized as we discussed in the previously Automation process require credentials for the smooth flow of automation steps. Aping is required according to the credentials of the administrator service of proper credentials When this two features are used together as a result in fewer and more escalations. Automation escalation flows only when the frontline operator does not have a proper permissions or when it requires experts operators interest this are more easy as 2-3 level operators can be determined. 8. Capture structural information in a practical and supportable mode Each and every IT organizations is having a very big challenge to other IT industry in all the fields of business in a continue manner. The talent of IT is rated to the uncompleted document and outdated.so IT Organization completely rely on knowledge produced to the incident happened. When the professionals leave the industry they take away the core knowledge with them and leave the Organization to struggle the alerts. With the help of IT process automation, IT process and procedures are implied as automation flows. These flows are managed as current as they constantly execute repair actions. In IT automation process two way of communication is possible with the CMDB it is used to help to create record, discover changes and updated automatically in the infrastructure in this IT processor change automatically. 9. Systematized maintenance processes Automatic trigger should happen at a particular time or at any periodically interval of time. In addition to this key value pair should be matched to trigger the action. This process of trigger action is a time consuming action in manual process, so automation process is better to apply. Action and task are pre-loaded in the system to generate the ticket and resolve automatically Some are the best examples which suit this action: Shutdown, start, restart are scheduled action. Change of password for the security purpose at a regular interval of time Rebooting and configuring setting at a particular service time Refreshing of data at a scheduled time. Due to this intermittently action. You can atomize the section in IT industry as IT automation process. It is executed according to the workflow defined in the process We can trace back the situation happened which is used to generate the report to the operator. This process helps to growth of Organization in the critical scenario of business. 10. Incorporate distinct systems management implements and procedures Management system product is a mixer of partially deployed, and most of them are not well integrated worth the other network system products. Most of the industry runs on Non-homogeneous management products through multiple vendors. In this process IT industry need the support to maintain large size of data center and multiple network operator centers. It also needs the support of the heterogeneous enterprise to their system product. Due to the large size of data centers and network operators, system management product maintained large integrated business enterprise to automate the It process. The combination of management product and process integration leads to the efficient growth and proactive IT organization Conclusion The beginning is very easy. Now you can start up your Automation of data center operations by implementing IT process automation. In few key areas more focus to be applied, a related experienced in IT industry can efficiently achieve to retain the investment and reduce the industry complexity. This can reduce the investment. This also provide more security to the data Bibliography Books: Marshall, C. (2008) The Executive Guide To IT Process Automation: Opalis. Andrzej, C., Abdelsala, H., Marek, R. (1998) Workflow and Process Automation Concepts and Technology : Kluwer Academic Bruno, V., Thecle, A.(1998) Advanced in Production Management System : Springer Paul, H. (2001) Business Process Change A Manager’s Guide to Improving Redesigning and Automation Processes : Edward Wade Arthut, H., Wil, M., Michel, A., Russell, N. (1998) Modern Business Process Automation : Springer – Verlag Berlin Sanjay, M. (2009) Business Process Automation: PHI Learning Ltd Helmut, R., Norbert, P., Wolfgang, S.( (2012) ISSE 2012 Securing Electronic Business Processes : Springer Vieweg Singh, S.K. (2003) Industrial Instrumentation and Control : Tata McGraw Journal Richard, H. (2005) ‘Intellectual Preperty Key Processes for Managing Patent Automation Strategy Need Strengthening’, Report to Congress Committee, 9(1), pp. 22-34 Russell, R. (2001) ‘Reengineering Business Processes Can Improve Efficiency of State Department License Reviews’, Report to the Chairman and Ranking Minority Member US, pp. 10-17 Newspaper Article Naren, K. (2010) ‘ Role of Automation in the Indian IT Industry’, Deccan Chronicle, 30 May, p.11 Website https://www.netiq.com/products/aegis/ http://www.networkautomation.com/overview/ http://blogs.technet.com/b/servicemanager/archive/2009/12/17/demo-extending-service-manager-to-automate-it-processes.aspx http://www.sap.com/solution/lob/it/software/it-process-automation/index.html http://www.computerweekly.com/guides/A-guide-to-business-process-automation-software http://www.slideshare.net/Ayehu/it-processautomationsurvivalguidefreeebook http://kissflow.com/process_playbook/5-reasons-why-you-should-automate-your-business-process/ Terrorism: Definitions, origins, responses and interventions. Terrorism: Definitions, origins, responses and interventions. Chapter One: Defining Terrorism Part One What is Terrorism The Etymology of Terrorism The etymological meaning of the English world terrorism was first adopted in medieval Britain but was first coined in medieval France from the Latin word terrere meaning to frighten (Jeffery 2006: 24). The suffix of ism on the end of the word terror can be constructed as a systematic activity aiming to promote and advance a certain ideological stance. For instance, Marxism argues society can, and will, change when the material conditions are in place to precipitate this change (Marx and Engels 1848: 27). Therefore, because Marxs belief promotes a certain branch of communist philosophy the suffix ism is used to establish his particular ideological viewpoint. Conversely, if one chooses to ignore the political connotation associated with the phrase terrorism, the etymology of terrorism, one could say, is to simply promote the systematic advancement of fear. For example, the parents of a child may simply choose to apply the metaphor of terrorist to personify their expression that their c hild annoy so frequently and unexpectedly that one fears what could come next. Further to this, the etymology of terrorism brings fourth two observations. Firstly, terrorisms rooted meaning has undergone a transformation (the historical context of terrorism will be highlighted later in chapter two, but I will give you a brief outline). Terrorism was first used within the latter part of the ninetieth century as a regime or system of governance, wielded to establish a revolutionary State against the enemies of the people (Williamson 2009: 43). Terrorism, in modern society, is now more commonly used to describe terrorist acts committed by non-state or sub-national identities against the State. In 1848, terrorism in Europe and Russia was originated by its exponents as comprising a kind of action against tyrannical States. German radicalist, Karl Henizen, underpinned the policy of terrorism directed at tyrannical States as he argued while murder was forbidden in principle, this prohibition did not apply to politics, and the murder of political leaders might well be a physical necessity (Laqueur 1980: 27). Henizen was therefore, perhaps, the first scholar to provide a doctrine for modern terrorism. Moreover, when Jacobins used the term terrorism to describe their regime during the French Revolution (1789-1794), it had a positive connotation, whereas now most commentators agree that the term terrorism is inherently a negative, pejorative term (Crenshaw 1989, Barker 2002). Thus, it is evident that the term terrorism has undergone a transformation both in meaning and in perception. The second observation one identifies with in relation to the etymology of terrorism is that since its inception, the term terrorism has been linked to various ideals such as justice, liberty and morality. This idealism continued to be attached to terrorism into the mid-1800s, even though a transition had occurred in the meaning of the term (Kravchinsky 1884: 508). These idealistic principles upon the term terrorism continue today. For instance, many modern organisations, considered as terrorist organisations, have chosen for themselves names which suggest that they are idealistic. One example of this is the terrorist organisation Al Qaeda. The term Al Qaeda roughly translates into The Base which suggests a certain level of moral unity among its organisation. Additionally, the perception that exists between how terrorists see themselves and how the way that others, particularly target governments, see them, can be explained by the well-known phrase one mans terrorist is another mans freedom fight (I will explain different societal constructions of terrorism later on in this chapter as a critique towards defining the concept terrorism). This phrase, therefore, represents the idea that terrorism is a political term and therefore has to be noted that the political, ideological and religious objectives, which have been an integral aspect of terrorism since its inception is what differentiates terrorism from mere criminal violence which has no greater criminal goal in mind and which is carried out for instant gratification (Williamson 2009: 45). Thus, whereas Osama bin Laden is deemed as a crazed killer within western society, among the east, especially parts of Pakistan and the Saudi kingdom he is deemed as a martyr (Gupta 2008: 8). And so, because of this, we need to adopt a politically scientific approach in helping to understand the definition of terrorism. Applying Political Science to help Understand the Definition of Terrorism The modern political usage of the phrase terrorism can be traced back to 1795 (Laqueur 2001: 6). It is reported that Edmund Burke was the first person to use the word in English, in order to warn people about what he called those thousand of hell hounds called terrorist (McDowell and Langford 1992: 87). The word first appeared in 1798 in the supplement of the Dictionnaire of the Academie Francaise where it was politically defined as a systeme, regime de la terreur (a system, reign of terror). The entry that first appeared in the Academie Francaise conjures up numerous observations that suggest that the term terrorism is political in nature. Firstly, it is clear that to any native French speaker, in the phrase systeme, regime de la terreur fear and terror play a predominant role. Therefore, in this respect, the definition of the Academie Francaise is to be taken more or less as equivalent to terrorism in its broadest sense which we were previously speaking about. Secondly, the politic al context regime furthers the argument that the term terrorism is inherently political in nature. And finally, there seems to be a hint of another condition embedded within the phrase that was placed in Academie Francaise, namely that most terrorist activity is carried out by non-private individuals (thus systeme). Therefore, presumably, these individuals were, or aspired to become legitimate rulers of a recognised States. Moreover, it appears that the definition of Academie Francaise solely aims to define rebel or revolutionary violence, rather than terrorism in its contemporary sense. However, it has only been within the last thirty-five years that political science has enlightened us on terrorist campaigns, groups, activities, tactics, motives, finances, State support and trends (Enders and Sandler 2006: 9). This comparative approach towards defining terrorism has taught us much about what is common and what is different among terrorist activity. For example, a majority of political scientists have characterised many European terrorist organisations as fighting communist organisations with a focused Marxist-Lenin ideology, an anticapitalist orientation, a desire to limit casualties, and a need for external constituency (Alexander and Pluchinsky 1992: 27). Over the last few decades, political scientists have furthered these comparative approaches towards the definition terrorism in which they have identified the changing nature of terrorism for instance, the rise of State sponsorship in the early 1980s to the more modern increase in Islamic fundamentalism in post modern society. Political scientists have also analysed the effectiveness of antiterrorist policies in helping to define the term terrorism, but without the need to apply social statistics. Further to this, Wilkinson maintains that political science defines the phrase terrorism by dividing its definition into three distinctive typologies, these include; revolutionary terrorism, sub-revolutionary terrorism and repressive terrorism. The first typology defines the phrase terrorism as the use of systematic tactics of terroristic violence with the objective of bringing about political revolution (Wilkinson 1975: 74). Wilkinson furthers the typology of revolutionary terrorism by characterising it into four major attributes; (1) it is always a group, not an individual phenomenon, even though the groups may be very small; (2) both the revolution and the use of terror in its furtherance are always justified by some revolutionary ideology or programme; (3) there exists leaders capable of mobilising people for terrorism and (4) alternative institutional structures are created because the revolutionary movement must partake action in the political system and therefore must develop its own policy-making bodies and codification of behaviour (Wilkinson 1975: 79). To give a more detailed picture of Wilkinsons typology of revolutionary terrorism towards the political definition of terrorism we should add Hutchinsons list of essential properties, these are; (1) it is part of a revolutionary strategy; (2) it is manifested through acts of socially and politically unacceptable violence; (3) there is a pattern of symbolic or representative selection of victims or objects of acts of terrorism and (4) the revolutionary movement deliberately intends these actions to create a psychological effect on specific groups and thereby to change their political behaviour and attitudes (Hutchinson 1978: 18). The second category in Wilkinsons typology to define the political definition of terrorism is sub-revolutionary terrorism. Sub-revolutionary terrorism is defined as terror used for political motives other than revolution or governmental repression (Wilkinson 1975: 81). Whereas revolutionary terrorism seeks total change, Wilkinson argues that sub-revolutionary terrorism is aimed at more limited goals such as forcing the government to change its policy on some issues, warning or punishing specific public officials, or retaliating against government action seen as reprehensible by terrorist (Wilkinson 1975: 82). Therefore, in this respect, under the typology of sub-revolutionary terrorism pressure groups such as Fathers for Justice and Green Peace may be deemed as terrorist organisations. Wilkinsons third typology, repressive terrorism, is defined as the systematic use of terroristic acts of violence for the purpose of suppressing, putting down, quelling, or restraining certain groups, individuals or forms of behaviour deemed to be undesirable by the oppressor (Wilkinson 1975: 83). Therefore, the political definition of terrorism under the typology of repressive terrorism relies heavily upon the services of specialised agencies whose members are trained to torture, murder, and deceive. The terror apparatus is then deployed against specific opposition groups and can be later directed against much wider groups (Wilkinson 1975: 84). One example of this is Nazi Germany, where the Schutzstaffel (SS), the specialised agency, deployed terroristic apparatus against the opposition group, the Jews. Moreover, the main advantage of applying a politically scientific approach to defining terrorism has been its electric, multidisciplinary viewpoint encompassing historical, sociological, and psychological studies. Historical studies identify common features among terrorist campaigns and indicate how the phrase terrorism has evolved over time. In sociological studies, sociologists analyses societal norms and social structure within terrorist organisations. And, by using psychological studies, researchers have identified internal and external variables associated with the escalation of violence in a terrorist event (Enders and Sandler 2006: 10). Furthermore, some factors, for example, may induce an individual to become a suicide bomber, for example, include sociological the approval of a group and psychological factors personal mentality. Thus, certain fields may interlink to accompany political science in helping to define terrorism. Another field that has helped revolutionised the way we perceive the definition of terrorism is law and to illustrate this point one is about to examine the definition of terrorism under general international law. Defining Terrorism under General International Law Recent interest in the utility or propriety of a definition of terrorism under general international law has been driven by larger issues, such as the need to build international solidarity within the war of terrorism, and the opposing need felt by some of guarding any such possible definition of terrorism from any undue weightage likely to be given to the unilateral belief of any one State, and particularly the meaning likely to be or already given to the term terrorism in the foreign policy of any one State (Hor et al 2005: 37). Therefore, the need to define terrorism, comprehensively, under international law cannot be divorced from such over-riding political concerns which, together with some old diplomatic obstacles, continued to plague the negotiations towards the Comprehensive Convention on International Terrorism in 2005. The rationale behind such a comprehensive treaty to define the phrase terrorism was a response to calls beginning within the 1990s for a departure from a reg ime of variegated subject-specific treaties. The initiative for such a treaty to define terrorism derived from India (United Nations General Assembly 2005: 166). The treaty established the United Nations General Assembly resolution 51/210 of 17 December 1996, which had established an Ad Hoc Committee together with a United Nations Sixth (Legal) Committee, which was tasked with negotiating on the Draft Comprehensive Convention (Reichard 2002: 18). However, one would like to focus upon the question of whether a customary or general international legal definition of terrorism already exists, and if so, what does a customary definition look like. Legal guidance to define terrorism under general international law lies at least as much in international custom as it does under the Comprehensive Convention of International Terrorism treaty. This is partly due to the time-lag that occurred between the completed text-based treaty and widespread participation that took place within the new treaty regime. Moreover, it is due to the fact that much of the new comprehensive definition was not all that new, thus proving the United Nations are a long way off achieving essential combinations of (1) having a precise formation that would necessarily prove useful in defining terrorism and (2) at the same time, attracting the necessary widespread participation of States to make such a comprehensive regime a success (Lim and Elias 1997: 27). State-sponsored terrorism is a good exemplar over what terrorism might be taken to mean in the eyes of general international law. Professor Brownlie concurs with this statement as he maintains that State-sponsored terrorism is governed mainly, if not exclusively, by the available categories of international legal thought such as the prohibition of the use of force in international relations, the doctrine of imputability in establishing State responsibility for acts of the individual and the self-defence doctrine. He argues there is no category of the law on terrorism and the problems must be characterised in accordance with the applicable sectors of general international law: jurisdiction, international criminal justice, state responsibility, and so forth (Brownlie: 2004: 713). However, this may to true insofar as international law has not yet evolved to encompass an agreed definition of terrorism, the various subject-specific rules of international law which focus on individual criminal responsibility for different acts of terror such as hijacking, terrorist financing, and so on, can neither be insulated from nor absorbed wholly by the currently existing international law rules which may be brought to bear on State-sponsored terrorism. Several States leading up to the Rome statute, for example, viewed terrorism, under international law, as a distinct criminal event which imposes individual criminal responsibility for State-sponsored terrorism. In this respect, the definition of terrorism differs when defining the phrase terrorism under State-sponsored terrorism and from what the definition of terrorism means under the International Court of Justice. For example, in the Nicaragua case, Nicaragua had brought a claim against the United States for alleged covert support given by the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) to armed insurgents operating in Nicaraguan territory in response to the Sandinista Governments covert support of the Farabundo Marti National Liberation Front in El Salvador. The issue was that there were interstate in international law rules pertaining to breach of the United States legal responses owed to Nicaragua by allegedly financing, supporting, equipping, arming, training and providing strategic guidance to Nicaraguan rebels seeking to overthrow the Sandinista Government (McCoubrey and White 1995: 12). In short, the case of Nicaragua was about defining the phrase terrorism through state responsibility and not solely as a means of political violence. On the other hand, Professor Mani recently suggested that what we call terrorism today is, in fact, very much state-sponsored terrorism. This, he suggests, is a direct result of the prohibition in Article 2(4) of the United Nations Charter of the use of the force in international relations, which would nonetheless attract individual responsibility for such acts. Therefore, the legal definition of terrorism may be seized by the figure of Osama bin Laden, and we may be startled that by the late twentieth century the only superpower in the world was required to go to war with a mere individual, but that does not change the fact that, for the most part, the definition of terrorism is closely linked to state-sponsorship (Murphy 1999: 161). The difference, therefore, between Professor Manis and Professor Brownlies viewponts is one that has marked debate among the social sciences for a number of years. For example, a majority of scholars adopt Brownlies viewpoint that the definition of terrorism, especially State-sponsored terrorism, is solely a product of individual extreme criminality. But we must not ignore Manis argument that the definition of terrorism under State-sponsorship, which has become an ongoing growing phenomenon, and has become a powerful focal-point for advocating the plight of the Palestinian people, for example. Therefore, in a world where we have learnt to view some States as rogue or parish, calling States such as Israel a terrorist State serves to highlight the Palestinian cause, and stigmatise the perceived wrongdoer all at the same time (Jansen 2001: 47). Thus, by defining the phrase terrorism under the use of general international law no one can pinpoint a precise definition of the phrase terrori sm as the word itself is unattainable. To further this discussion one will now begin to highlight the problems associated with defining the phrase terrorism in which one will begin by examining terrorism as a moral problem. Part Two Problems in Defining Terrorism Definition of Terrorism as a Moral Problem A major stumbling block towards defining terrorism is that, at base, terrorism is a moral problem. This is, therefore, one of the major reasons for the difficulty over defining of terrorism. Attempts at defining the phrase terrorism are often predicted on the assumption that some classes of political violence are justifiable whereas others are not. Many would label the latter as terrorism whilst being loathe to condemn the former with a term that is usually used as an epithet. So, in order, for a definition to be universally accepted it must transcend behavioural description to include individual motivation, social milieu, and political purpose (Wardlaw 1989: 4). The same behaviour will or will not, therefore, be viewed as terrorism by any particular observer according to differences in these other factors. However, if the definition is to be of use to a wider audience than the individual who constructs it, students of violence will have to try and divest themselves of the traditiona l ways of its definition. Just as an increasing number of commentators seem to be able to even-handedly apply the term terrorist to non-State and State actors they will have to apply it even-handedly to those groups with whose cause they agree and those with whose cause they conflict (Wardlaw 1989: 4). The difficulty here is, however, is that different groups of users of definitions find it more or less easy to utilise definitions which focus on behaviour and their effects as opposed to these factors tempered by considerations of motives and politics. Thus many academic students of terrorism seem to find it a little difficult in labelling an event as terrorist without making a moral judgement about the act. Furthermore, many politicians, law enforcement and governmental officials, and citizens find themselves unable to take such a detached view (Wardlaw 1985: 4). For this reason, it may not be too difficult to construct an acceptable definition within this given reference group, but the problem arises when each group attempts to engage into dialogue with each other. This communication problem is of more than academic importance. This is because it is one of the root causes of both the vacillations in policy which characterises the response of most individual states to terrorism and of the complete failure of the international community to launch any effective multi-lateral initiatives to combat the problem (Wardlaw 1989: 5). Therefore, those who study terrorism within any given community often cannot communicate with the policy-makers and law enforcers because the latter groups often reject the analytical techniques of the former as being of insufficient relevance to the real world. This is partly due to the latter groups seeing the lack of relevance as an inability to distinguish between right and wrong acts. Moreover, at an international level, political support given to sectional interests militates against a universal definition that could form the basis for international law and action (Wardlaw 1989: 5). Thus, for example, the Palestine Lib eration Organisation (PLO) is seen by some nations as a terrorist group having no political legitimacy and using morally unjustifiable methods of violence to achieve unacceptable ends. Conversely, other nations deem the actions of the PLO as acceptable legitimate representation of opposed people using necessary and justifiable violence (not terrorism, one needs to emphasise) to achieve a just and inevitable end. Therefore, the problem within defining the phrase terrorism rests upon moral justification. However, in order to further illustrate ones argument into the problems of defining terrorism one needs to seek to explain such a phenomenon, and not solely justify the problems in defining terrorism wholly on moral justification. And so, in this respect, we need to assess the identity of terrorism in order to seek the problem of its definition. Difficulties in Defining Terrorism Due to Identification Another factor that deserves to be noted within the process of identifying the problems associated with defining the concept of terrorism is identification. The reasoning for this is down to the fact that identification is key to its rhetorical success. Thus, an act will become to be seen as terrorist if people identify with the victim of the act. One example of this is the role of media in reporting terrorism. To explain, the media tend to portray terrorist acts as newsworthy because it acts as an instrument of legitimation. Other example of this happening are within areas of muggings, environment crime, and white-collar crime. Therefore, if the identification of the terrorist act, in the perpetrators eyes, is positive the implication for official regimes becomes positive. Take State-sponsored terrorism as an example, if such States are industrialised societies than industries are active participating actors within the official terrorist regime. Furthering the example, because State -sponsored terrorism usually involves bureaucracy (police, armed forces, intelligence agencies, secret police, immigration control, and information control) it becomes the administration of terror thus identifying the definition of terrorism as a positive outcome. Moreover, Thornton describes the identification of terrorism as a problem of its definition by suggesting its a process of disorientation, the most characteristic use of terror (Thornton 2002: 86). However, it is important to emphasise that in Thorntons quotation of terrorism he places emphasis on terrorisms extranormal quality. Firstly, one would like to highlight the use of terror in Thorntons quotation is solely placed within the upper levels of the continuum of political agitation and therefore is not representational of terrorism as a whole but only political motivated terrorism. Furthermore, Thornton is placed with the difficulty of defining extranormal a difficulty which is not resolved throughout his argument. One maintains that it would be more productive to seek other ways by which the identification of the definition of terrorism could be more distinguishable from other forms of crime, for example, muggings both of which have the effect of producing State terror in the v ictim. One way terrorism can be distinguishes from other forms of crime is that it has an audience wider than the primary victim, although, the same can be said about muggings. For instance, if a number of muggings take place in certain location, intense fear will be engendered in many other individuals who have cause to be or in the same places. The identifiable feature, that distinguishes terrorism to other forms of crime, therefore, is the design to create anxiety rather than the extranormality of the anxiety, which Thornton discussed. Terrorism is further characterised by its highly symbolic content. Thornton contends that the symbolic nature of terrorism contributes significantly to its relatively high efficacy. Thus; If the terrorist comprehends that he is seeking a demonstration effect, he will attack targets with a maximum symbolic value. The symbols of the State are particularly important, but perhaps even more are those referring to the normative structures and relationships that constitute the supporting framework of society. By showing the weakness of this framework, the insurgents demonstrate not only their own strength and the weakness of the incumbents but also the inability of the society to provide support for its members in a time of crises. (Thornton: 2002: 91) To further the claim that the problem in defining the phrase terrorism is down to identification we must strengthen Thorntons argument by introducing two terrorist approaches, these are enforcement terrorism and agitational terrorism. A Tale of Two Terrorist Approaches Enforcement Terror and Agitational Terror Within Thorntons broad definition of terrorism, he has distinguished two categories of how terrorism can be defined. These are through the uses of enforcement terror and agitational terror within terrorist activities. The first approach, enforcement terror, is used by those in power who wish to annihilate challenges to their authority, and the second approach, agitational terror, describes the terroristic activities of those who wish to disrupt the existing status quo and ascend to political power (Thornton 2002: 117). For instance, Nazi Germany and Stalin Russia can be said to inhabit examples of enforcement terror as each government would use fear tactics such as the murder of their citizens to shock them into not establishing a rebellion. Whereas, it could be argued that some socio-political groups such as the Irish Republic Army (IRA) use agitational terror such as the bombing of public places in order to achieve political power. Similarly, May (1974: 285) also observed a divide into the broad definition of terrorism, he theorises these as; the regime of terror and the siege of terror. The former, May refers to, is terrorism in service of establishing order, while the latter refers to terrorism in service of revolutionary movements. May accedes that the regime of terror is more important of the two but also notes how the siege of terror is also what grips societys attention, as May states revolutionary terrorism, derivative and reflexive though it may be, exposes a level of perception into the universe of killing and being killed that may be even more revealing than state terrorism (May 1974: 290). The argument May puts forth about the regime of terror versus the siege of terror is in fact one of the most interesting puzzles of anyone studying terrorism to come to grips with as most commentators and scholars often focus their attention on the insurgence of terrorism rather than the incumbent nature of terrorism. There are a number of apparent explanations for this. Firstly, one of the hallmarks of insurgence terrorism is that it is dramatic and thus newsworthy. The reason why insurgence terrorism is newsworthy is that it is atypical in nature, it can be addressed stereotypically, and it can be contrasted against a backdrop of normality which is largely overly-typical (Cohen and Young 1981: 52). Thus, when terrorism becomes institutionalised as a form of governance it makes headlines less often simply because it has less news value than a high jacking of an airliner. Another reason for the lack of attention paid toward what May called the regime of terror may be traced back to t he processes of constructing social realities. To explain, the portrayal of official terrorists as rational beings compared to the lunatic and out-of-control nature of the individual terrorist encourages the mass of society to see the threat to their physical and psychic integrity coming from the latter direction (Reddy 1998: 163). Many academics adopt this notion that while states that enforce a regime of terror may be undesirable, the immediate fear from society perhaps mostly from imagery projected into the public persona from the mass media is individual terrorism. It is this component of uncertainly that plays a large part here. For instance, state terrorist activities may be brutal and unjust (Chomsky 2005: 185), but, in general, one knows what activities not to indulge in in order to escape its immediate and person intrusion. Moreover, it also has to be noted that individual terrorism by contrast bears no necessary relation to ones own behaviour. It appears random and dangerous. Here again we hear the echoes of the impact the media has on reporting such events. Furthermore, it must be remembered that many states currently experiencing terrorism are authoritarian states that exert to some extent control over what the news reports. In said cases, therefore, the media can hardly castigate authoritarian go vernments for their excesses thus fearing reprisals such as license cancellation but they can, and do, bring the threat of terrorism by small groups and individuals into the homes of the masses. The view of terrorism therefore is fostered of a society plagued by dangerous extremists damaging the fabric of everyday life and threatening the sate whilst ignoring the greater damage that is being perpetrated as a result of government policies and action plans. However, it is of course much easier to focus greater emphasis on a specific perpetrator than on one amorphous system. There is, therefore, are some sensible practical reasons for the reluctance of scholars studying the phenomenon of state terrorism. For instance, Gloom noted; Historians find it difficult to think themselves into the mores of Robespierres or a Stalins regime of terror and it is dangerous to conduct field research in contemporary regime of terror. It is far easier to conceptualise the use of terror as a weapon to achieve a specific goal rather than a form of a regular and normal government (Gloom 1978: 73) Further to this, the only systematic effort develop general theory of terrorism based on an analysis o

The Genre Of Documentary Photography

The Genre Of Documentary Photography In his examination of Lt. Col. Oliver L. Norths portrait, taken by Harry Benson for Life Magazine (1987), Andy Grundberg (1988) emphasizes the importance of the camera position, background elements and attitude of the subject towards a heroic appearance, even though the reality was somewhat different, visible in another, less interesting news photograph of Colonel North facing the full house of Congress. The juxtaposition of the two photographs makes one think of the kind of information photographs leave behind. Is it an actual reflection of the actuality or something more interpretable and selective? Putting this into the perspective of the pre-photographic history one could say that photographs are better representations of the historical events than say, paintings or drawings. Nevertheless this is not entirely true because photography can also be biased exactly as a painting using different capturing techniques, angles, and recently computer aided photo manipulation which makes everything so much easier to tamper with. John Griersons which is generally accepted as being the father of the documentary genre characterized it as the creative treatment of actuality. The first question that comes to my mind is why did he use the term actuality and not reality? For this we have to take a look at the definition of actuality. According to the Merriam-Webster online dictionary actual means existing in fact or reality. In my opinion reality is what you interpret and you think something is, and actuality is what it really is by looking at the facts. Reality and actuality are strongly connected and one can say that reality is what you perceive from actuality. John Tagg (p.172, 1988) argued that It is not a question of the struggle for truth but, rather, of a struggle around the status of truth and the economic and political role it plays. One of the iconic photographs that apply to this statement is Dorothea Langes Migrant Mother and the extensive debates around the truthfulness of the photograph. Is it that important that the photograph was staged, edited and cropped or not? The point is that even though it might be a staged photograph it still conveys the reality of the time. Lange was sent on assignment for the Farms Security Administration to document the poverty of the share-croppers. The story she associated with the image was not entirely true but it efficiently showed the condition of the migrant workers. It is arguable that the changes made to the original Migrant Mother photograph created the notoriety of the image (i.e. the editing out of the thumb, and the possible staging of the photograph). If we look at some of the other images from the shoot we can see clearly that at least one of the children is smiling. This could lead to the belief that Lange posed the two children with their faces behind her mother to hide their light heartedness. The final portray and the iconic image of the Migrant Mother is relating to what Grierson refers as creative treatment of actuality and nevertheless a reality for everyone who saw the image at the time. Another very well-known photograph which had a lot of debate whether is true or not, is one made by Duane Michals called This Photograph is My Proof. Duane admitted  [1]  he is gay in many of his interviews, so how can this photograph be true? He realised he is gay before his 20s and the photograph is taken when he was in his 30s thus leading us to think the photograph was staged. Tagg (p.16, 1993) argued that The camera seems to declare: This really happened. The camera was there. See for yourself. Ask yourself under what conditions would a photograph of the Loch Ness Monster or an Unidentified Flying Object become acceptable as proof of their existence? It seems that for Tagg the actuality of a photograph can only be proven by other means and not only by the photo on itself. The general belief is that photography is an objective medium able to portray an objective reality, but if we think about it one photograph is just one point of view. Just by changing the angle in which you take the photograph you can change its whole meaning. Edward Weston and Paul Strand were among the ones that strongly believed the mechanical nature of the camera is the most powerful argument for the truthfulness of photographs. In the book On photography, Sontag argues that (p176, To us, the difference between the photographer as an individual eye and the photographer as an objective recorder seems fundamental, the difference often regarded, mistakenly, as separating photography as art from photography as document. But both are logical extensions of what photography means: note-taking on, potentially, everything in the world, from every possible angle. This approach suggests that every image taken for artistic purposes or for recording purposes has a documentary quality. It means that even though someone took a photograph for aesthetic purposes its still a recording, but from another point of view. She further explains that the two attitudes underlie the presumption that anything in the world is material to the camera. If we could photograph the same subject from every angle by many different creative eyes we could end up with a series of images that show the actuality. Martin Parr had a different approach on documentary photography adding humour and irony to almost If not all of his photographs. He has a unique way of telling a story which is often harsh. His creative style is covered in irony, and this generates a very strong statement about society. His approach seems to be very close to actuality even if his unique style is very distinct. In her book called Documentary Dilemmas, Caroline Anderson (p.1, 1991) talks about Frederick Wiseman and his documentary film Titicut Follies saying that he (i.e. Wiseman) considered his films as reality fictions. Anderson (p.1, 1991) argues that Wiseman didnt want to be responsible for representing social actuality in an objective manner. He used the ambiguous term of reality fiction as an excuse to be able to classify his work in both documentary genre and as an artistic creation. Anderson (p.2, 1991) claims that Wiseman used the term of reality fiction as a claim upon film theory and not to point at the inevitable tension between actuality and film. Nevertheless Titicut Follies is still a documentary film. Elizabeth Cowie (p.22, 2011) referring to the recording of actuality in both photography and film, claims that two different predilections exist. There is the need for reality as a fact and the ability to review it, and on the other hand there is the need of rational knowledge, conveyed through logical interpretation. This idea reflects upon John Griersons creative treatment of actuality in a sense that a documentary creation has to represent the actuality but also to help the viewer see the reality which the creator wants to deliver. Looking at my own photographs for an example of Griersons statement I chose a photograph which shows a woman sleeping on the pavement between two bags that read A bag For Life. This photograph was taken a few steps from my place and could be a good example of the creative treatment of actuality. My intention was to articulate the fact that the woman was homeless but the reality is she can be anyone and anything and she just happened to enjoy the sunshine. A while ago I was asking myself if documentary photography is the middle ground between art and actuality. I was putting actuality, documentary photography and fine art photography in a hierarchy, fine art photography being on the highest ranks. This is because actuality on its own is not interesting, it does not have that spark of genius documentary photography and it does not have the creative approach of fine art photography. One of the best examples of how documentary photography shed light on the social injustices around the world is the Magnum Agency. Founded by Robert Capa, Henri Cartier- Bresson, George Rodger and David Chim Seymour the agency had, and still has, the purpose of chronicle the world through the distinctive eyes of each member thus creating a complete image of the society. Documentary photography indeed can be seen as a genre which binds the aspirations of photojournalism with the ones of photographic art, thus becoming a kind of bridge or grey area, if you like. The main characteristic of documentary photography is the appetite for social subjects that go beyond the simple story in the newspaper, becoming increasingly subjective but at the same time holding a grip to actuality and truth. For me creativity represents the fingerprint which the photographer applies to the raw actuality with the purpose of creating his own reality to share with the world.